Deutsch: Erwartung / Español: Expectativa / Português: Expectativa / Français: Attente / Italiano: Aspettativa /
The term "expectation" refers to an individual's anticipation or belief regarding a future event, outcome, or situation. Expectations play a significant role in shaping human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. Psychologists study expectations to understand how they influence perception, decision-making, motivation, and emotional responses. This concept is essential for comprehending various aspects of human psychology.
Here, we will explore the concept of expectation in psychology, provide examples, and list related concepts and theories.
Examples of Expectation in Psychology:
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Perceptual Expectations: Perceptual expectations refer to how prior knowledge and experiences influence the way individuals perceive sensory information. For instance, if someone expects a drink to be sweet based on past experiences with that brand, they may perceive it as sweeter than it actually is.
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Outcome Expectancies: Outcome expectancies are beliefs about the consequences of one's actions. For example, a student who expects that studying diligently will result in high grades is more likely to invest effort in their studies.
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Emotional Expectations: Expectations can shape emotional responses. If someone anticipates a positive outcome, such as a promotion, they may experience feelings of excitement and happiness. Conversely, if they expect a negative outcome, such as job loss, they may feel anxious or sad.
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Social Expectations: Social interactions are heavily influenced by expectations. For example, when meeting someone for the first time, individuals often have expectations about the person's behavior, such as whether they will be friendly or aloof.
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Performance Expectations: In educational and work settings, performance expectations can impact achievement. Students who believe they can excel in a subject are more likely to perform well. Similarly, employees who expect to succeed in their tasks tend to be more motivated and productive.
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Therapeutic Expectations: In psychotherapy, patients often have expectations about the effectiveness of treatment. Positive therapeutic expectations can enhance the placebo effect, leading to perceived improvement in symptoms.
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Parental Expectations: Parents' expectations for their children's behavior and achievements can significantly influence child development. High parental expectations may motivate children to excel academically, while unrealistic expectations can lead to stress and anxiety.
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Gender Role Expectations: Society often imposes gender role expectations, influencing how individuals behave and perceive themselves. For example, societal expectations may lead to traditional gender roles in which men are expected to be strong and unemotional, while women are expected to be nurturing and empathetic.
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Cultural Expectations: Different cultures have distinct expectations regarding behavior, social norms, and values. These cultural expectations shape individuals' identities and influence their interactions within their cultural contexts.
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Expectations in Decision-Making: When making decisions, people often weigh the expected outcomes of each option. For instance, someone deciding whether to invest in a particular stock will consider their expectation of the stock's future performance.
Related Concepts and Theories:
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Expectancy-Value Theory: This theory, developed by John Atkinson, posits that motivation is influenced by the expectation of success and the subjective value placed on the expected outcome. It suggests that individuals are more motivated when they expect to succeed in a task and value the outcome.
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when an individual's belief or expectation about a future event influences their behavior in a way that makes the event more likely to occur as expected. For example, a teacher who believes a student is exceptionally gifted may provide more attention and support, leading the student to excel.
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Placebo Effect: The placebo effect is a phenomenon in which a person experiences improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic value but is believed to be effective. Expectations play a significant role in the placebo effect.
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Confirmation Bias: Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms one's existing beliefs or expectations. It can lead to selective perception and reinforce preconceived notions.
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Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that when individuals hold conflicting beliefs or attitudes, they experience psychological discomfort. To reduce this discomfort, they may alter their beliefs or behaviors to align with their expectations.
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Social Identity Theory: Social identity theory, developed by Henri Tajfel, explores how individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups. These group identities are associated with certain expectations and behaviors within the group.
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Psychological Contracts: Psychological contracts refer to the unwritten expectations and obligations that individuals believe exist between themselves and their organizations or social groups. Violations of these contracts can lead to feelings of betrayal or dissatisfaction.
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Schema Theory: Schemas are mental frameworks or structures that organize and interpret information. Expectations are often based on existing schemas, influencing how individuals process new information and experiences.
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Reinforcement Expectancy Theory: This theory, developed by Julian Rotter, focuses on the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior. It suggests that individuals are more likely to engage in a behavior if they expect it to be followed by a desirable outcome.
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Goal Expectancy Theory: Goal expectancy theory explores how individuals set and pursue goals based on their expectations of success. It suggests that individuals are more likely to commit to and persist in pursuing goals when they expect positive outcomes.
In summary, expectations in the psychology context encompass a wide range of beliefs and anticipations that influence perception, behavior, emotions, and decision-making. Understanding how expectations are formed and how they impact human psychology is essential for comprehending various aspects of individual and social behavior.
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